Posts tagged skull
1862. Private Patrick Hughes, Co. K, 4th New York Volunteers, was wounded at the battle of Antietam.
Private Hughes survived, but when he sneezed, a cone would protrude from the wound site.
Osteosarcoma of the upper jaw in 10-year-old boy
Sarcomas are relatively rare tumors in humans, formed from mesenchymal cells, rather than epithelial (surface) cells. Epithelial cell tumors are called “carcinomas”. Since sarcomas are relatively uncommon, but hard tumors or cysts on the bones are not, patients are often misdiagnosed at first.
In children, osteosarcomas (sarcomas of the bone) comprise approximately 2.4% of cancer cases. Most of these tumors occur in the leg bones, but around 8% originate in the jaw. The standard treatment of osteosarcoma is resection of the affected bone - that is, removal of the tumorous section, and joining together the two sections of bone on either side of the removed area. If the tumor has spread or the bone is too overtaken by it, amputation of the limb is called for. Obviously, you can’t amputate the face, but detection of facial tumors is often much less delayed than in the leg, and the removal and resection of the jaw bone is usually possible.
Five-year survival rates of pediatric osteosarcoma are still one of the lowest of all the childhood cancers, at an average of 68% across all the different manifestations. However, given that the survival rate was hovering around 5-10% at the beginning of the 20th century (and that’s being generous), we’ve come a long way. Early detection and eliminating misdiagnoses of leg tumors is critical to survival in all age groups.
Tumors of the Jaws. Charles Locke Scudder, 1912.
“Comparison of ancestral and existing horse”
The lower figure is a model of a full-sized Eohippus, placed beneath the skull of a modern horse, to show that the skull of the modern horse is larger than the entire body of its ancestor.
Despite being one of the most commonly cited “facts” in basic paleontology (as found in many elementary school science texts), this size comparison is actually incorrect. Geologist Henry Fairfield Osborn distributed (largely correct, aside from this point) educational pamphlets citing the size of Eohippus to be comparable to a “small fox terrier” to schoolhouses, to promote the science of paleontology, around the turn of the century.
His pamphlets reached so far and wide that the “fact” still persists to this day in many textbooks. Eohippus was about twice the size of a fox terrier, which is about 2.5 times the size of a modern horse skull.
Origin and History of the Horse. Address before the New York Farmers Metropolitan Club, 1905.
Disarticulated bones of the skull
The skull consists of 22 bones; 16 in the neurocranium (brain-case), and 8 in the endocranium (facial bones). At birth, these bones are not secured tightly together - this allows for passage of the infant through the birth canal (newborn heads are often cone-shaped for the first few days, if delivered vaginally), and allows for the rapid expansion of the brain during the first several years of life
By adulthood, however, the skull is one cohesive unit, and one of the strongest and least-deformable structures in nature. For human skulls, upwards of one ton of force (if evenly applied) is required to depress the bone just one centimeter. Of course, fractures and punctures can weaken the structural integrity of the skull significantly.
Anatomical Atlas, Illustrative of the Structure of the Human Body. Henry H. Smith, 1867.
Death’s-Head Hawkmoth - Acherontia atropos
There are three species of Death’s-Head Hawkmoth, all of which raid the hives of honeybees for their honey. They mimic the scent of their target bee, and this prompts the members of the hive to not attack the intruder. A. atropos targets the Western Honey-Bee, and is the only species of Death’s-Head Hawkmoth in Europe.
Aside from their ominous markings, these moths can “scream” when threatened. The “scream” is really a loud squeak, emitted by pushing air through the pharynx. Accompanied by flashing their contrasting colors, the unique screech is enough to scare off most predators.
The Naturalist’s Library Vol. VI: Entomology - Bees and Related Species. James Duncan, compiled by Sir William Jardine, 1840.
Structural anatomy of the human head
Successive frontal slices of adult male, brain removed.
As can be seen in these images, the human skull is a rather complex maze of hollow cavities, thin walls, and hidden structures.
There are four sets of paranasal sinuses in the front of the head: the maxillary sinuses (right below the eyes), frontal sinuses (above the eyes, in the hard part of the forehead), ethmoid sinuses (between/behind the nose and eyes), and the sphenoid sinuses (in the sphenoid bone, under the pituitary gland, in the center of the skull - can be seen in the bottom-most plates).
In addition to those sinuses, you can also see the Eustachian tubes, which connect the ear to the nasopharynx and regulate pressure in the middle ear; the curled nasal concha, which regulate the air flow through our nose, keeping it a relatively constant humidity and temperature; and the falx cerebri, a sickle-shaped sheet of dura mater that divides the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
Studies in the Anatomy and Surgery of the Nose and Ear. Adam E. Smith, 1918.
Unknown Skull - Identification?
any idea what this is? a friend found it in their backyard. South Texas feel free to post the picture. I don’t have a size reference :( sorry about that. =]
Ahhh I wish there were more photographs of it! It’s hard for me to tell what a skull is when I can’t see it from more than one angle.
It’s upside down, so the parts of the skull I can identify most easily (the sagittal arch and the parietal complex) are hidden. It doesn’t look like that small of a skull, but from what I can see of the relationship between the auditory bullae and the zygomatic arches, it looks canid. I’m not sure if it’s too big to be a coyote skull, though.
It’s been a few years since wildlife ecology and actually handling skulls, so does anyone else have an idea?
American Crow - Corvus brachyrhynchos
Both the American crow and the common raven (Corvus corax) are widespread, highly adaptable, and have loud and distinctive calls. Their conspicuous and ubiquitous nature made them two of the most commonly identified species in cemeteries, graveyards, and other areas associated with death and despair.
Unfortunately, the specter of death seems to have caught up to the crows - since 1999, the population of crows has dropped by over 45%, thanks to West Nile Virus. Despite the adaptability of the birds, they’re very susceptible to many avian diseases. As such, they’re considered a bioindicator (or sentinel) species - when they start dying in larger numbers, it indicates the presence of WNV or another avian disease in the area, and other birds will probably start dying soon.
The living animals of the world. C. J. Cornish, 1902.
![“Inevitabile fatum” - The Inevitable Fate
Anato Miae, Hoc Est, Corporis. 1537, Ioannem Dryandrum [Joannem Dryandrum], 1537.](http://24.media.tumblr.com/45388369d7bd58201458830231675458/tumblr_mf5l7mNOyZ1qk931ho1_400.jpg)
“Inevitabile fatum” - The Inevitable Fate
Anato Miae, Hoc Est, Corporis. 1537, Ioannem Dryandrum [Joannem Dryandrum], 1537.
I love the sphenoid complex. It’s gorgeous. It looks so much like a tattered but unbroken moth.
Your sphenoidal sinuses are deep within your skull, behind the olfactory bulb and olfactory sensors in the very back of your nose. They sit around the pterygoid wings of the sphenoid bone, and the upper wall of the sinuses is the upper wings of the bone. These wings are the last bone structure before the brain, and though they’re strong, they’re thin and brittle, and can easily be damaged or destroyed by tumorous growths and head injuries.
Serious sinusitis before antibiotics could become deep-seated (it is usually treated before this happens these days), and if there are any cracks in the pterygoid wings, easily invade the brain cavity. Because of this and related reasons, bacterial meningitis and encephalitis (more serious and higher risk of complications) was at one time much more common than viral meningitis around the world, as it still is in developing countries. The mortality rate was about 10-15%, but many times even people with resolved infections ended up with hearing loss, brain damage, and in children, learning disabilities.
That said, the most important things are that the sphenoid complex seats the pituitary gland, provides support for the optic and the olfactory nerves, and a boundary between the open sinuses (prone to infection) and the brain structures. It prevents transmission of bacteria to the brain, and it provides a stable platform for the nerves that allow us to both see and smell the world around us.
What an important and lovely structure.
Note: Not “historical”, but a subject I’ve dealt with recently, by way of a friend who bought a skull online.
I’m partial to cow skulls, myself…but this is a good comparative anatomy overview for anyone interested in big animals!
So often I see “horse skulls” for sale that are actually cow skulls. A lot of folks automatically assume that if it is a big skull with no horns then is must belong to a horse. Here is a side by side comparison to show how vastly different these two critters are.
Skull on the left in the first photo is a horse. The skull on the right is a cow. In the second photo the skull on the bottom is a horse and the skull on top is a cow.
Cows have broad, thick heads, especially near the top of the skull while horses have longer, more tapered skulls. The most obvious difference between the two though is the teeth. Horses have both upper and lower incisors (twelve teeth in total) at the front of the mouth while cows only have lower incisors (six). Since horses don’t ruminate or have four stomachs like a cow they need to be able to break down their food a little more thoroughly before they swallow it. Having upper incisors helps them get the good out of every bite.
Sometimes horses will also have canine or even wolf teeth that grow between the incisors and the molars. Wolf teeth are actually vestigial premolars which are often removed if the horse is a work animal because they can interfere with a bit. Canine teeth look like fangs and horses can have anywhere from zero to five of them. Most often they are found in stallions and geldings (my big draft gelding has some scary canine teeth) but mares can have them too. I think it’s something like less that 30% of mares have them though and they often times only have one or two while stallions usually have a full set of four (two uppers and two in the bottom jaws).
So to recap: Horses have long, thin skulls with incisors in both the skull and lower jaws while cows have thick, broad skulls, sometimes with horns, with incisors only present in the bottom jaws.
Deadly mushrooms of the East Coast of the United States
1. Amanita spreda - Hated Caesar
2. Amanita phalloides (white var.) - Death Cap
3. Amanita phalloides (brown var.) - Death Cap
4. Amanita muscaria - Fly Agaric
5. Amanita frostiana - Frost’s Amantia
6. Gyromitra esculenta - False Morel/Brain Mushroom
Despite their toxicity, the brain mushroom or turban fungus (one of many false morels) is considered a delicacy in many Scandinavian countries, and in several mountainous towns of the Pyrenees. The mushroom is prepared by parboiling it, which inactivates most of the toxin, but the fungus still carries risks - even if prepared correctly, the toxin gyromitrin often remains at levels high enough to have both short-term and long-term effects on the liver and central nervous system.
Toadstools, mushrooms, fungi, edible and poisonous: One Thousand American Fungi. Charles McIlvaine, 1900.
Form and Skull of Sus scrofa moupinensis - North China wild boar
Piggers! The wild boar was domesticated in China at some point between 7000-8000 BCE, after dogs, sheep, and cats, but before cattle, horses, and camels. Wild swine are native to most of Asia, Central Europe, and North Europe, but at this point have formed feral herds throughout every continent but Antarctic. In the wild, most Suidae are very aggressive in protecting themselves and their territory, and uncastrated domestic males (boars) tend to display the same characteristics in many breeds.
As one can tell by the sharp canines and incisors, and broad canines good for grinding food, Suidae are extremely omnivorous, and find food by digging through the dirt with their snouts. In males, the canine teeth grow through their entire life, though at different rates in each genus. In feral boars (Sus scrofa), the canines don’t often reach more than a few inches long, but they are razor-sharp and expertly wielded. In some other species, such as the babirusa, the overgrown canines (tusks) are much longer than those of Sus scrofa, reaching the point of growing so long they curve backwards and into the cranial cavity.
Tusk-brains aside, all Suidae are extremely intelligent when it comes to domestic animals. As omnivores, they’re both hunted and hunters in the wild, and need to have an effective and developed brain to balance both.
Elemens de zoologie. Henri Milne-Edwards, for M. Alphonse Milne Edwards. 1840.
Skull of juvenile Bornean orangutan (top) compared to adult Homo sapiens
Like most great apes, Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) have large, sharp, canine teeth. However, these do not grow in until the juvenile orangutan loses its milk teeth, a couple years after weaning (typically between 4-6 years of age).
You can see the evolutionary differences in diet between orangutans and humans, simply by looking at the teeth and shape of the skull. The orangutan has large, broad molars, sharp incisors, and mandibular musculature that has a very broad attachment point on the skull. Bornean orangutans are generally vegetarian, feeding on leaves, berries, and even bark at times. The broad molars are necessary for grinding and breaking down roughage in their diet.
While the human skull given is not the best example, we have smaller molars, weaker mandibular muscles, and fairly dull incisors and canines. Homo sapiens evolved as strict omnivores, but with a very distinct difference from our more simian (and even most of our hominid) ancestors - we cooked our food. Though the roughage early humanity consumed was much tougher than what we eat today (unless you eat roots and nutmeats as a primary diet), cooking foods such as meats and roots broke them down before we ate them. Our skulls required less space for jaws and jaw muscles, and we required less energy to eat than ever before.
Die Säugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur. J.C.D. Schreber, 1774.
Median Section of Skull
Showing middle meningeal artery and significant planes of skull. Dura mater that would be visible in typical median section not depicted.
Anatomy of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Harris E. Santee, 1907.
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A blog for all biological and medical ephemera, from the age of Abraham through the era of medical quackery and cure-all nostrums. Featuring illustrations, history, and totally useless trivia from the diverse realms of nature and medicine.
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