Posts tagged medicine

Top: Uterine lining at 5 1/2 months, displaying thin maternal separation from fetus, and high level of placental implantation
Center: Relation of placenta to uterus at 5 weeks and 8.5 months
Bottom: Major arteries and veins of the placenta

Did you know that the placenta is a temporary organ that’s actually created by the fetus, and not the woman?

The human female is a curious creature; like our close great ape cousins, but unlike almost all other mammals, they build up a thick barrier in the uterine wall, to protect against any potential embryo that might implant itself. When there’s no embryo implantation, the thickened wall is shed, in the process known as menstruation.

The thing is, most mammals don’t menstruate. They go into heat, and occasionally shed uterine lining (if the uterus is scratched, or an egg tries to implant but fails, for example), but there’s no regular cycle of bloody discharge relating to breeding. This is because other mammals go through triggered decidualization (developing a uterine lining only when a fertilized egg begins to implant itself), while the great apes (and a couple other convergently evolved families, including bats) experience spontaneous decidualization, where they develop a thick uterine lining during every ovulation, before an egg can even attempt to implant itself.

Why the different linings? Well, it turns out that there are three types of mammal placentas (remember, placentas are developed by the embryo/fetus, not the mother):

  1. Epitheliochordal, which is completely superficial, and does not connect in any significant way to the mother’s body. The endometrial epithelium, connective tissue, and uterine epithelium are all preserved and undisturbed in the mother. The fetus is separated from the mother by three layers of tissue. Nutrients and waste are delivered and eliminated through diffusion, rather than direct connection. This group includes equids, swine, and ruminants.
  2. Endotheliochordal, which is slightly more invasive to the mother, only preserves the uterine epithelium. Nutrients and waste are not exchanged through direct connection to the mother, but the placenta only leaves one layer of tissue between it and the mother. This group includes cats and dogs.
  3. Hemochorial is the most invasive form of placenta in the animal kingdom. The embryo directly hooks itself up to the host (mother’s) blood flow, and leaves no tissue layers between the female and the placenta. This allows much more efficient nutrient transfer to the embryo or fetus, but is also potentially the most harmful to the female since the embryo attaches itself so securely to the uterine wall. The female must develop preemptive measures (a thickened uterine lining) to protect herself from a life-form that is literally driven to take all of the nutrients it needs to develop, and which has adapted to connect itself directly to the host. This group includes elephant shrews, most bats, and most primates.

Interested in more about the science behind reproduction and how amazingly efficient the human embryo is at sucking its host clean, just to obtain its needed resources for development?

PZ Meyers at Pharyngula has an understandable explanation of the article I referenced for this post.

There is also a great site by R. Bowen about the pathophysiology of the reproductive system.

An American Text-Book of Obstetrics for Practitioners and Students. Edited by Richard C. Norris, 1895.

Osteosarcoma of the upper jaw in 10-year-old boy Sarcomas are relatively rare tumors in humans, formed from mesenchymal cells, rather than epithelial (surface) cells. Epithelial cell tumors are called “carcinomas”. Since sarcomas are relatively uncommon, but hard tumors or cysts on the bones are not, patients are often misdiagnosed at first. In children, osteosarcomas (sarcomas of the bone) comprise approximately 2.4% of cancer cases. Most of these tumors occur in the leg bones, but around 8% originate in the jaw. The standard treatment of osteosarcoma is resection of the affected bone - that is, removal of the tumorous section, and joining together the two sections of bone on either side of the removed area. If the tumor has spread or the bone is too overtaken by it, amputation of the limb is called for. Obviously, you can’t amputate the face, but detection of facial tumors is often much less delayed than in the leg, and the removal and resection of the jaw bone is usually possible. Five-year survival rates of pediatric osteosarcoma are still one of the lowest of all the childhood cancers, at an average of 68% across all the different manifestations. However, given that the survival rate was hovering around 5-10% at the beginning of the 20th century (and that’s being generous), we’ve come a long way. Early detection and eliminating misdiagnoses of leg tumors is critical to survival in all age groups. Tumors of the Jaws. Charles Locke Scudder, 1912.

Osteosarcoma of the upper jaw in 10-year-old boy

Sarcomas are relatively rare tumors in humans, formed from mesenchymal cells, rather than epithelial (surface) cells. Epithelial cell tumors are called “carcinomas”. Since sarcomas are relatively uncommon, but hard tumors or cysts on the bones are not, patients are often misdiagnosed at first.

In children, osteosarcomas (sarcomas of the bone) comprise approximately 2.4% of cancer cases. Most of these tumors occur in the leg bones, but around 8% originate in the jaw. The standard treatment of osteosarcoma is resection of the affected bone - that is, removal of the tumorous section, and joining together the two sections of bone on either side of the removed area. If the tumor has spread or the bone is too overtaken by it, amputation of the limb is called for. Obviously, you can’t amputate the face, but detection of facial tumors is often much less delayed than in the leg, and the removal and resection of the jaw bone is usually possible.

Five-year survival rates of pediatric osteosarcoma are still one of the lowest of all the childhood cancers, at an average of 68% across all the different manifestations. However, given that the survival rate was hovering around 5-10% at the beginning of the 20th century (and that’s being generous), we’ve come a long way. Early detection and eliminating misdiagnoses of leg tumors is critical to survival in all age groups.


Tumors of the Jaws. Charles Locke Scudder, 1912.

To cure impotence or “loss of vigor”:

Some people will do anything to get their “potency” back, and there are plenty of people out there who are willing to take advantage of that. John R. Brinkley was one of the myriad snake-oil salesmen at the turn of the century, but a medical degree bought from a diploma mill led the now-“Dr.” Brinkley to pursue grander matters.

Early on in Brinkley’s career, Bill Stittsworth, a farmer with “no lead in his pencil, no powder in his pistol” consulted him. Brinkley jokingly remarked that it was too bad the farmer didn’t have the glands of the frisky billy goats outside, but Stittsworth, taking Brinkley seriously, said “Doctor, I want you to transplant [the goat glands] into me.” The doctor did as much, and nine months later, Bill Stittsworth’s wife bore a son, appropriately named “Billy.”

Seeing the potential to profit from this venture, John Brinkley set up a major advertising campaign centered on “Billy,” and “goat-gland transplantation” took off. Over 16,000 men had their scrotums cut open, their testicles “cored,” and had tissue plugs from the goat testicles inserted. In the best-case scenario, the men’s bodies simply broke down the goat tissues and healed up, but many patients weren’t so lucky.

The fact that Brinkley was a mediocre medical man at best led to at least 43 deaths that were directly attributable to his operation, but hundreds more are believed to have been killed by infection, gangrene, or surgical mishaps. Those 43 deaths led to the revocation of Brinkley’s license to practice medicine in Kansas in 1930. Unfortunately for the easily-swayed, he remained in the goat-gland business for another decade, across the border, in Mexico.

From my recent article “8 Cures That Did More Harm Than Good” at mental_floss

I wonder if Bill Stittsworth noticed that little “Billy” looked exactly like Dr. Brinkley…

mentalfloss.com

fuckyeahmedicalstuff: Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on April 10, 1887.He was the first Argentine and Latin American scientist awarded the Nobel Prize. The National Academy of Sciences of Sweden awarded him in Physiology and Medicine for his discovery of the role of the hypophysis gland in carbohydrate metabolism and in diabetes. He entered the School of Pharmacy of the University of Buenos Aires at the exceptionally early age of 14, graduating in 1904. He had already begun studying medicine and, in 1907, before completing his studies, he took up a post in the Department of Physiology. He began here his research on the hypophysis which resulted in his M.D.-thesis (1911), a thesis which earned him a University prize. In 1910 he was appointed Professor of Physiology in the University’s School of Veterinary Medicine. During this time he had been doing hospital practice and, in 1913, became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital. In addition to this he was also in charge of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology and Pathology in the National Department of Hygiene from 1915 to 1919. In 1919 he became Professor of Physiology in the Medical School at Buenos Aires University. He also organized the Institute of Physiology at the Medical School, making it a centre with an international reputation. He remained Professor and Director of the Institute until 1943. In this year the Government then in power deprived him of his post, as a result of his voicing his opinion that there should be effective democracy in the country. Although receiving many invitations from abroad, he continued his work in an institute which he organized with the support of funds contributed by the Sauberan Foundation and other bodies. This was the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, where he still remains as Director. In 1955 a new Government reinstated him in the University. He has worked in almost every field of physiology, having a special interest in the endocrine glands. He has made a lifelong study of the hypophysis and his most important discovery concerns the role of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism and the onset of diabetes. He has worked on many other topics in physiology and pharmacology, including the physiology of circulation and respiration, the processes of immunity, the nervous system, digestion, and snake and spider venoms. Apart from his research, he has been active in promoting the advancement of university and medical education, and of scientific research, in Argentina. Dr. Houssay is the author of over 500 papers and of several books. He has won many prizes ranging in time from that of the National Academy of Sciences, Buenos Aires, in 1923, to the Dale Medal of the Society of Endocrinology (London) in 1960. He was a key figure in the development of science in Argentina. The result of his tireless efforts is the creation of numerous research institutes and training of several generations of scientists. Medical graduate with honors from the University of Buenos Aires, he was, along with others, behind the creation of the National Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), which he chaired until his death on September 21, 1971. He also created the Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, and co-founded the Argentina Association for the Advancement of Science. He holds honorary degrees of twenty-five universities and is a member of the Argentine National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Letters, the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of Buenos Aires, and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor of 15 universities, foreign associate of 11 academies or learned societies, member (honorary or correspondent) of 38 Academies, 16 Societies of Biology, 11 of Endocrinology, 7 of Physiology and 5 of Cardiology. He has been decorated by the governments of several countries.

fuckyeahmedicalstuff:

Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on April 10, 1887.

He was the first Argentine and Latin American scientist awarded the Nobel Prize. The National Academy of Sciences of Sweden awarded him in Physiology and Medicine for his discovery of the role of the hypophysis gland in carbohydrate metabolism and in diabetes. 

He entered the School of Pharmacy of the University of Buenos Aires at the exceptionally early age of 14, graduating in 1904. He had already begun studying medicine and, in 1907, before completing his studies, he took up a post in the Department of Physiology. He began here his research on the hypophysis which resulted in his M.D.-thesis (1911), a thesis which earned him a University prize.

In 1910 he was appointed Professor of Physiology in the University’s School of Veterinary Medicine. During this time he had been doing hospital practice and, in 1913, became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital. In addition to this he was also in charge of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology and Pathology in the National Department of Hygiene from 1915 to 1919. In 1919 he became Professor of Physiology in the Medical School at Buenos Aires University. He also organized the Institute of Physiology at the Medical School, making it a centre with an international reputation. He remained Professor and Director of the Institute until 1943. In this year the Government then in power deprived him of his post, as a result of his voicing his opinion that there should be effective democracy in the country. Although receiving many invitations from abroad, he continued his work in an institute which he organized with the support of funds contributed by the Sauberan Foundation and other bodies. This was the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, where he still remains as Director. In 1955 a new Government reinstated him in the University.

He has worked in almost every field of physiology, having a special interest in the endocrine glands. He has made a lifelong study of the hypophysis and his most important discovery concerns the role of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism and the onset of diabetes. He has worked on many other topics in physiology and pharmacology, including the physiology of circulation and respiration, the processes of immunity, the nervous system, digestion, and snake and spider venoms.

Apart from his research, he has been active in promoting the advancement of university and medical education, and of scientific research, in Argentina.

Dr. Houssay is the author of over 500 papers and of several books. He has won many prizes ranging in time from that of the National Academy of Sciences, Buenos Aires, in 1923, to the Dale Medal of the Society of Endocrinology (London) in 1960.

He was a key figure in the development of science in Argentina. The result of his tireless efforts is the creation of numerous research institutes and training of several generations of scientists. Medical graduate with honors from the University of Buenos Aires, he was, along with others, behind the creation of the National Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), which he chaired until his death on September 21, 1971. He also created the Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, and co-founded the Argentina Association for the Advancement of Science.
He holds honorary degrees of twenty-five universities and is a member of the Argentine National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Letters, the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of Buenos Aires, and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor of 15 universities, foreign associate of 11 academies or learned societies, member (honorary or correspondent) of 38 Academies, 16 Societies of Biology, 11 of Endocrinology, 7 of Physiology and 5 of Cardiology. He has been decorated by the governments of several countries.

Structural anatomy of the human head

Successive frontal slices of adult male, brain removed.

As can be seen in these images, the human skull is a rather complex maze of hollow cavities, thin walls, and hidden structures.

There are four sets of paranasal sinuses in the front of the head: the maxillary sinuses (right below the eyes), frontal sinuses (above the eyes, in the hard part of the forehead), ethmoid sinuses (between/behind the nose and eyes), and the sphenoid sinuses (in the sphenoid bone, under the pituitary gland, in the center of the skull - can be seen in the bottom-most plates).

In addition to those sinuses, you can also see the Eustachian tubes, which connect the ear to the nasopharynx and regulate pressure in the middle ear; the curled nasal concha, which regulate the air flow through our nose, keeping it a relatively constant humidity and temperature; and the falx cerebri, a sickle-shaped sheet of dura mater that divides the right and left hemispheres of the brain.

Studies in the Anatomy and Surgery of the Nose and Ear. Adam E. Smith, 1918.

Mummified head of Pharaoh Ramses II, with artificially enhanced nose. Did you know that the first plastic surgery was performed in Ancient Egypt? No, not on the living, but it was considered crucial to the Egyptians who were mummified. In the afterlife, the only physical feature believed to be completely retained was the facial structure, but mummification dried the body such that the face was often unrecognizable. Ramses II was known for his elongated nose, so to ensure he would be recognized as a king in the afterlife, bone and seeds were surgically inserted under the skin of his nose after the desiccation of mummification, to restore and exaggerate its original shape. Read more about plastic surgery, from Ancient Egypt to Tagliacozzi, to Harold Gillies’ wartime facial reconstruction in my mental_floss article! Image: Catalogue General Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire; The Royal Mummies. G. Elliot Smith, 1912.

Mummified head of Pharaoh Ramses II, with artificially enhanced nose.

Did you know that the first plastic surgery was performed in Ancient Egypt? No, not on the living, but it was considered crucial to the Egyptians who were mummified.

In the afterlife, the only physical feature believed to be completely retained was the facial structure, but mummification dried the body such that the face was often unrecognizable. Ramses II was known for his elongated nose, so to ensure he would be recognized as a king in the afterlife, bone and seeds were surgically inserted under the skin of his nose after the desiccation of mummification, to restore and exaggerate its original shape.

Read more about plastic surgery, from Ancient Egypt to Tagliacozzi, to Harold Gillies’ wartime facial reconstruction in my mental_floss article!

Image: Catalogue General Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire; The Royal Mummies. G. Elliot Smith, 1912.

mentalfloss.com

Rheumatic heart disease (Rheumatic endocarditis)

A hundred years ago, before we had access to effective antibiotics or preventative care, strep throat (streptococcal pharyngitis), scarlet fever, and other manifestations of Streptococcus pyogenes infection often led to death; sometimes that death was months or years after “recovery” from the disease, but it was directly caused by the reaction of the body’s immune system to the bacterial infection.

Untreated Streptococcus infections can lead to an autoimmune cross-reaction to the body’s own tissues. One of these autoimmune responses is rheumatic fever. In this condition, the heart and joints are attacked, causing them to grow vegetations (see the opened heart above) which impede blood flow and free movement of the large joints. Rheumatic fever also causes what’s known as “St. Vitus’ Dance” (chorea minor), which causes uncontrolled movements and muscle twitching, which can further impair quality-of-life and productivity.

While rheumatic fever is rare in the developed world (and almost always caught early when it does occur), it’s still painfully common in places like South-East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. People (largely children) who develop it often don’t know until symptoms begin to seriously manifest themselves, when the growths have reached a point where they have the potential to soon completely block the heart valves. At this point, the only cure for the patient is open-heart surgery - something that’s incredibly hard to come by in the developing world. Over 300,000 people still die of this condition every year.

Keif Davidson recently released an Academy Award-nominated short documentary called “Open Heart”, following eight Rwandan children to the Salam Center in Northern Sudan. This well-built and impressively staffed charitable hospital is run by Emergency, an Italian NGO. For the children that can get there, open-heart surgery and all follow-up visits are provided for free. It’s an impressive and touching film, and the passion of the filmmaker and of the surgeons is hard to ignore.

If Streptococcal infections are treated, rheumatic fever almost never develops. But if it does, early treatment can mean that those afflicted with the condition can live happy and productive lives, and may never develop the life-threatening heart conditions associated with it. There are currently efforts to disseminate antibiotic availability for Streptococcal infections, and a mobile team is now being organized to screen for early rheumatic fever in the field. Prevention and early treatment is much cheaper for everyone, and hopefully both of these efforts will be successful in decreasing the number of people who must trek far from home for any chance at all of treatment.

Illustration: Researches on Rheumatism. F.J. Poynton and Alexander Paine, 1914.

Poster: “Open Heart” Film. Directed by Keif Davidson, in Association with Stories Of Change A Project Of and supported by the Skoll Foundation. 2013.

openheartfilm.com

On the topic of Tagliacozzi…

Surgical patient with a skin flap from the arm transplanted to the nose. From Gaspare Tagliacozzi (1597), De curtorum chirurgia per insitionem, p. 18. Woodcut.

This 16th century volume is the first book on plastic surgery in Europe since antiquity. Tagliacozzi details amputations, skin transplants, and prosthetics for the nose, lips, and ears. The bandages depicted here were designed to hold the arm to the nose for several weeks for the skin graft to take hold.

Apparently, damage to the nose was not uncommon in the 16th century, thanks to outbreaks of syphilis, and duel-related nasal injuries. 

(source: fullerenes)

When the cure is worse than the disease… No. 97: Metallic stomatitis sores, concurrent with re-emergence of syphilitic mucous papules. Caused by mercuric injections.No. 98: Bullous Erythema multiforme brought on by arseno-benzene injections. Patient had nine injections of mercury and eleven of arseno-benzene, and presented his rash two-and-a-half months later. His urine had much protein in it and showed signs of acute yellow atrophy of the liver. He was given three more injections of arseno-benzene and apparently recovered?No. 99: “Typical” presentation of nails after acute arsenical dermatitis, after the rash has disappeared. There were many recorded deaths from the “cure” for syphilis, often from infection of open wounds caused by reactions to the deadly poisons that people were ingesting to try and avail themselves of an illness that, if anything, would probably have killed them much more slowly… Venereal Diseases: Their Clinical Aspect and Treatment. J. E. R. McDonagh, 1921.

When the cure is worse than the disease…

No. 97: Metallic stomatitis sores, concurrent with re-emergence of syphilitic mucous papules. Caused by mercuric injections.

No. 98: Bullous Erythema multiforme brought on by arseno-benzene injections. Patient had nine injections of mercury and eleven of arseno-benzene, and presented his rash two-and-a-half months later. His urine had much protein in it and showed signs of acute yellow atrophy of the liver. He was given three more injections of arseno-benzene and apparently recovered?

No. 99: “Typical” presentation of nails after acute arsenical dermatitis, after the rash has disappeared.

There were many recorded deaths from the “cure” for syphilis, often from infection of open wounds caused by reactions to the deadly poisons that people were ingesting to try and avail themselves of an illness that, if anything, would probably have killed them much more slowly…

Venereal Diseases: Their Clinical Aspect and Treatment. J. E. R. McDonagh, 1921.

Child’s arm holding the eye’s vascular tissue

Specimen prepared by Bernardus Siegfried Albinus, ca. 1730. Currently on display in the Anatomy Hall of Museum Boerhaave, in the city of Leiden, The Netherlands.

Photograph by [Astropop], 2009, All Rights Reserved.

Submitted by Thee Naluark.

I heard a story about "fecal transplants" on NPR today, and I was really fascinated but also really disgusted/horrified. Do you know if they actually work? And, if so, what types of diseases are they used to treat? — Asked by Anonymous

Oooh! I’m glad they replayed that segment! Well, one of them, at least. I’m not sure which one you heard, but there are a couple good ones - here’s the Science Friday segment on it. This Fresh Air interview of Carl Zimmer has some additional information on it.

As for “if it works”, that’s still being determined in many respects, but so far, it’s looking like one of the most effective treatments for infections caused by the destruction of gut bacteria - when our normal gut flora is destroyed by antibiotics, bacteria that are normally kept in check by the “good bacteria” can take hold and take over, like Clostridium difficile. C. difficile is in your gut already, most likely, but the good flora in there makes it so that it can’t get a solid footing in your intestines and cause problems.

Really, that’s the primary use for fecal transplants right now, but they’re being investigated in other intestinal diseases and conditions. For now, though, we’re pretty sure that the extremely high success rate for eliminating C. difficile infections(80%+ with non-“matched” transplants, 95%+ with transplants from a household member) is directly due to the infusion of good bacteria back into the gut - nothing is for certain until every possibility is investigated, but it’s looking like a really solid solution, possibly even a new standard solution to be used BEFORE giving a patient more antibiotics. We’ll see how studies on other diseases turn out eventually, but C. difficile is a horrible infection, and affects a lot of people, and this is actually a really promising treatment modality.

collectivehistory: Contraceptive sponge, possibly English, 1920-1960 Sponges were widely used as contraceptives in the 1800s and 1900s. They were used in conjunction with liquids thought to have spermicidal properties to kill sperm. These included quinine and olive oil. This marine sponge was held in cotton netting to aid its extraction. During the 1950s and 1960s, sponges were often advertised under ‘feminine hygiene’ rather than contraception as for some parts of society contraception was a taboo. 

collectivehistory:

Contraceptive sponge, possibly English, 1920-1960

Sponges were widely used as contraceptives in the 1800s and 1900s. They were used in conjunction with liquids thought to have spermicidal properties to kill sperm. These included quinine and olive oil. This marine sponge was held in cotton netting to aid its extraction. During the 1950s and 1960s, sponges were often advertised under ‘feminine hygiene’ rather than contraception as for some parts of society contraception was a taboo. 

Gluteal muscles

The three primary gluteal muscles (maximus, medius, and minimus), in addition to the tensor fasciae latae (lateral to the primary muscles), comprise the gluteal group, which provides the majority of the support and movement that allows humans to walk upright, rotate our legs, and support our torso.

Each individual muscle is often involved in many different movements, though not always as the primary player. All four gluteal muscles originate from the outer ilium (the back of the “wings” on the pelvis). This is known as the gluteal surface.

Gluteus maximus: (Top Left) The largest muscle in the body. Supports the pelvis, lower torso, and allows the body to remain upright and regain position after stopping movement. Despite claims to the contrary, the gluteus maximus is not what gives the majority of the shape to the buttocks - that’s largely determined by the panniculus adiposus (“hanging fat”) of the buttocks. However, exercising the gluteus maximus may cause fat loss, which gives the impression that it is the primary progenitor of the shape.

Gluteus medius: (Top Center) Originates right below the gluteus maximus. Responsible for abducting the leg and maintaining an upright position while on one leg, such as during running, dancing, or entering a car.

Gluteus minimus: (Top Right) The smallest of the three primary gluteals, works in concert with the gluteus medius to maintain an upright position on one leg, as well as allowing the leg to turn inwards and outwards (medial rotation).

Tensor fasciae latae: (Bottom; near sartorus muscle) Located on the outside edge of the thigh, lateral to the primary gluteals. Causes knee extension, and functions to cause the primary movements during walking. Supported by the gluteus maximus. Used extensively in horseback riding.

Images:
Top: Posterior muscles of the gluteal and thigh region. Gluteus maximus, medius, and minimus highlighted. From Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied. Henry Gray, 1913. Highlighted by Mikael Haggstrom.
Bottom: Structures surrounding the right hip joint, including gluteal muscles. From Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied. Henry Gray, 1908.

Ways to Die: Nutritional Disorders

Among the things to be grateful for this holiday season, you’re most likely not dying from any of these conditions…

biomedicalephemera:

I’ll be elaborating on all of these conditions soon, but here’s the 30,000 ft overview of some significant nutritional disorders (aside from allergies and deliberate poisoning/ordeal poisons - the latter I may cover in the future, as culturally they’re fascinating) that have plagued mankind since we took our first bite of food.

While many nutritional disorders are due to a lack of food, some are due to an excess of a toxin from some food that the body can’t process. The staple foods that end up harming people when over-consumed or not properly processed often are eaten or poorly prepared as a result of famine, and just like nutritional deficiencies, many still plague the world today.

Nutritional Disorders - Deficiencies:

  • Beriberi: Thiamine (Vitamin B1) - Extreme fatigue, difficulty walking, and confusion/difficulty speaking are the primary symptoms. Also can cause heart failure, vasodilation, peripheral edema, nystagmus (involuntary eye twitching), and tingling sensation in limbs.
  • Goiter: Iodine - Swelling of thyroid gland. Rarely fatal, but can cause severe deformity and hypothyroidism.
  • Rickets: Vitamin D, magnesium, phosphorus - Dental problems, skeletal deformity and stunting, muscle weakness, swollen wrists, bone pain, soft skull.
  • Marasmus: All nutrients, especially protein - Tissue and muscle wasting, dry folds of skin hanging from buttocks and armpits, extreme adipose loss, voracious appetite
     
  • Pellagra:Niacin (Vitamin B3) or tryptophan - “The four D’s”: Diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death. Causes extreme sunlight sensitivity, pale skin that breaks out in blisters/keratinitis upon sun exposure, insomnia, aggression, as weakness. (Basically, they’re crazy pissed-off vampires.)
     
  • Tetany: Calcium deficiency or phosphate excess - Involuntary contraction of muscles due to increased action potential of neuronal membranes, due to low plasma calcium, which increases membrane permeability to sodium, causing progressive depolarization. It’s complicated. It’s basically involuntary and painful stiffened muscles.
     
  • Kwashiorkor: Protein calories - Pedal edema, distended abdomen, lack of adipose tissue, anorexia (as opposed to marasmus, where the child wants to eat everything), loss of hair and teeth. More common in wetter climates, marasmus more common in dry climates.
     
  • Scurvy: Vitamin C - Lethargy, spots on skin, paleness, spongy gums, fever, bleeding of mucous membranes. Eventually causes open and pus-oozing wounds, tooth loss, jaundice, neuropathy, and death.
     
  • Keshan Disease: Selenium - Fosters a mutated strain of coxsackie B virus which causes pulmonary edema and heart failure, mostly in women of child-bearing age and in children. Can be cured with selenium supplementation

Nutritional Disorders - Toxicity:

  • Lathyrism: Untreated grass pea - Causes an inability to move the lower limbs. Not usually fatal on its own, but when it occurs in concert with famine (as in the Spanish War of Independence), death from starvation sometimes occurs.
     
  • Ackee Poisoning/Jamaican Vomiting Sickness: Unripe ackee fruit - Intense thirst, nausea and vomiting, tachycardia, headache, general weakness, and confusion/stupor. Death can follow in just 12 hours. Caused by hypoglycin A and B in unripe fruit and mantle of fruit (even when ripe). General symptoms of hypoglycemia, similar to diabetes.
     
  • Konzo: Cyanide intoxication from poorly treated cassava (manioc) - “Bound legs” - extreme hypertonia in leg muscles. Causes pain and very disturbed gait, but is not progressive, so does not cause death. Does generally disable the afflicted persons, and this can be debilitating (socio-economically and physiologically) to patients.
     
  • Lytico-Bodig: Cycad nuts and seeds - Unique to Guam, far western Papua New Guinea, and Honshu, Japan. Parkinson-dementia complex, difficulty speaking, tremor, stiffness, loss of sense of smell, lethargy, memory loss. Caused by accumulation of BMAA from cyanobacteria that grows on cycads. Incurable. Has not been seen in those born past 1961, due to elimination of both cycad products and fruit bats (which feed on cycad flowers and accumulate BMAA in their own bodies).

Vesalius and modern anatomy

biomedicalephemera:

Vesalius the person:

Andreas Vesalius was born in Brussels in 1514, on the morning of December 31. His given name was André Wesele (Witing) Crabbe, and Andreas Vesalius was a name taken on after deciding to pursue medicine, at age 17. He came from a line of physicians and apothecaries, and his great-great-grandfather was a physician who had amassed a large collection of medical texts, in which Vesalius sated his early interest in medicine. After studying medicine at the University of Paris for his Bachelor’s, he received his title of doctor in medicine cum ultima diminutione from the University of Padua, where only days later he was appointed Professor of Surgery and Anatomy.

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