Posts tagged 1910

Top: Complete uterine prolapse.
Center and bottom: Female reproductive organs, diagrammatic and in situ.

In healthy women, the uterus is held in place by a “hammock” of ligaments and muscles, most notably the broad ligament, and the uterosacral ligaments. If these ligaments are torn or undergo trauma, they can weaken, and uterine prolapse can occur. The vast majority of uterine prolapse patients only have the uterus fall into the vagina, and further prolapse can often be staved off by Kegel and other exercises.

However, in severe cases (most often in very difficult vaginal births, following difficult pregnancies), both the uterus and vagina can prolapse, and completely evert from the pelvis. In these cases, it’s often only possible to revert and secure the vagina; the uterus is too heavy to suture into place with no natural support, and is generally removed in a hysterectomy.

Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical. Henry Gray, 1910.
Atlas Iconographique. Dr. S. Laskowski, 1898.

To everyone asking: “Pangolin = sandshrew?”

Almost.

Baby Pangolin or 9-Ringed Armadillo x Shrew = Sandshrew.

Pangolin = SandSLASH.

ETA: PANGOLINS = BEST EVER by The Brain Scoop [I may be paraphrasing]

biomedicalephemera: Pangolin - Manis spp. The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function. Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however. In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans. Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected. The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

biomedicalephemera:

Pangolin - Manis spp.

The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function.

Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however.

In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans.

Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected.

The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

biomedicalephemera

Ocean sunfish - Mola mola The Mola mola is the largest bony fish living today, and only the three largest sharks (the blue shark, basking shark, and great white shark) regularly outweigh this behemoth of the open ocean.  Like many of the giants of the animal kingdom, the sunfish has a diet that’s almost paradoxically nutrient-poor. All of the calories taken in by adult sunfish are provided by jellyfish and small fry and eggs of other fish, so they spend a large amount of their time eating. Their presence in an area can indicate nutrient-rich waters where endangered species can often be found. The status of sunfish in the wild is not currently known, though they’re caught often enough that they’re assumed to not be threatened at this point. A multi-year survey of the worldwide sunfish populations is currently underway. Image: Giant ocean sunfish caught by W.N. McMillan of E. Africa, at Santa Catalina Isl., Cal. April 1st, 1910. Its weight was estimated at 3,500 pounds.

Ocean sunfish - Mola mola

The Mola mola is the largest bony fish living today, and only the three largest sharks (the blue shark, basking shark, and great white shark) regularly outweigh this behemoth of the open ocean. 

Like many of the giants of the animal kingdom, the sunfish has a diet that’s almost paradoxically nutrient-poor. All of the calories taken in by adult sunfish are provided by jellyfish and small fry and eggs of other fish, so they spend a large amount of their time eating. Their presence in an area can indicate nutrient-rich waters where endangered species can often be found.

The status of sunfish in the wild is not currently known, though they’re caught often enough that they’re assumed to not be threatened at this point. A multi-year survey of the worldwide sunfish populations is currently underway.

Image: Giant ocean sunfish caught by W.N. McMillan of E. Africa, at Santa Catalina Isl., Cal. April 1st, 1910. Its weight was estimated at 3,500 pounds.

loc.gov

Vessels and nerves of the choroid and iris This cutaway diagram clearly shows the position and relation of the sclera to the inner workings of the eyeball. Comprising the posterior five-sixths of the connective tissue surrounding the eyeball, the sclera is contiguous with the cornea (the anterior one-sixth of the connective tissue) and the dura mater surrounding the optic nerve. Yes, that’s the same “dura mater” connective tissue that’s found surrounding the brain - in mammals, the eyes are simply outgrowths of the brain itself, not independently developed sensory organs (as they are in, say, cephalopods). Also known as “the whites of the eye”, the sclera is comprised primarily of collagen and elastic tissue, and is a fairly durable and tough outer casing for the inner structures of the eyeball. Directly interior to the sclera is the choroid, which provides much of the structural definition and vasculature of the eyeball, but is very delicate on its own. Humans are fairly unique among mammals in that the whites of our eyes are always showing. The small size of our irises and the contrast against the sclera allows us to clearly communicate nonverbal (and often subconscious) cues to one another using only our eyes. Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied. Henry Gray, 1910.

Vessels and nerves of the choroid and iris

This cutaway diagram clearly shows the position and relation of the sclera to the inner workings of the eyeball.

Comprising the posterior five-sixths of the connective tissue surrounding the eyeball, the sclera is contiguous with the cornea (the anterior one-sixth of the connective tissue) and the dura mater surrounding the optic nerve. Yes, that’s the same “dura mater” connective tissue that’s found surrounding the brain - in mammals, the eyes are simply outgrowths of the brain itself, not independently developed sensory organs (as they are in, say, cephalopods).

Also known as “the whites of the eye”, the sclera is comprised primarily of collagen and elastic tissue, and is a fairly durable and tough outer casing for the inner structures of the eyeball. Directly interior to the sclera is the choroid, which provides much of the structural definition and vasculature of the eyeball, but is very delicate on its own.

Humans are fairly unique among mammals in that the whites of our eyes are always showing. The small size of our irises and the contrast against the sclera allows us to clearly communicate nonverbal (and often subconscious) cues to one another using only our eyes.

Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied. Henry Gray, 1910.

openlibrary.org

“The static head breeze. Direct method.” Static electricity applied to the head via highly-conductive non-contacting crown. Used to “treat” many conditions, from headache to peripheral neuraligia. Medical Electricity and Rontgen Rays. Sinclair Tousey, 1910.

“The static head breeze. Direct method.”

Static electricity applied to the head via highly-conductive non-contacting crown. Used to “treat” many conditions, from headache to peripheral neuraligia.

Medical Electricity and Rontgen Rays. Sinclair Tousey, 1910.

openlibrary.org

Radiograph of Theodore Roosevelt, 1912. In this 1912 x-ray, one can clearly see the bullet that hit Teddy Roosevelt in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 14, 1910, lodged right above his fourth rib on his right side. There is a small amount of shading surrounding the bullet, due to scar tissue buildup and the body’s natural attempts to encase foreign objects that it cannot remove. Despite being shot, Roosevelt assumed he had not been hit in the lungs as he coughed no blood. He proceeded to give his 90-minute stump speech, though he prefaced it by stating, Friends, I shall ask you to be as quiet as possible. I don’t know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot; but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose. But fortunately I had my manuscript, so you see I was going to make a long speech, and there is a bullet - there is where the bullet went through - and it probably saved me from it going into my heart. The bullet is in me now, so that I cannot make a very long speech, but I will try my best. As the bullet pierced both his steel eyeglasses case and his speech notes before entering his body, it did not do significant damage, despite entering his lungs a solid two inches. Remembering the horrible complications that medical intervention had when William McKinley was shot by a bullet that would likely not have killed him, Teddy Roosevelt opted not to have the projectile removed. It never caused severe complications, and aside from a short recovery (two weeks time), never bothered Roosevelt to bear. He carried the bullet in his right lung to the day he died in 1919. Image: George Grantham Bain Collection, United States Library of Congress.

Radiograph of Theodore Roosevelt, 1912.

In this 1912 x-ray, one can clearly see the bullet that hit Teddy Roosevelt in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 14, 1910, lodged right above his fourth rib on his right side. There is a small amount of shading surrounding the bullet, due to scar tissue buildup and the body’s natural attempts to encase foreign objects that it cannot remove.

Despite being shot, Roosevelt assumed he had not been hit in the lungs as he coughed no blood. He proceeded to give his 90-minute stump speech, though he prefaced it by stating,

Friends, I shall ask you to be as quiet as possible. I don’t know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot; but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose. But fortunately I had my manuscript, so you see I was going to make a long speech, and there is a bullet - there is where the bullet went through - and it probably saved me from it going into my heart. The bullet is in me now, so that I cannot make a very long speech, but I will try my best.

As the bullet pierced both his steel eyeglasses case and his speech notes before entering his body, it did not do significant damage, despite entering his lungs a solid two inches. Remembering the horrible complications that medical intervention had when William McKinley was shot by a bullet that would likely not have killed him, Teddy Roosevelt opted not to have the projectile removed. It never caused severe complications, and aside from a short recovery (two weeks time), never bothered Roosevelt to bear. He carried the bullet in his right lung to the day he died in 1919.

Image: George Grantham Bain Collection, United States Library of Congress.

Flickr / library_of_congress

Sweat glands in the human epidermis:

Diagrammatically represented (top)
Isolated vertical cross-section (Right)
Isolated horizontal cross-section (left)

Staying cool this ridiculous summer, fellow North Americans? Even if you’re hot and miserable and sweaty, your body knows how to keep its organs at the optimal temperature - that’s why you sweat in the heat in the first place!

Unlike other mammals that sweat for thermoregulation (such as oxen and horses), humans largely sweat from their eccrine sweat glands, which are not directly connected to hair follicles. Eccrine sweat glands secrete mostly water, with a few electrolytes (mostly NaCl, which is why sweat tastes salty). The amount we sweat is regulated by the hypothalamus and the contraction of cells surrounding the eccrine glands, and is influenced by hormone release and internal body temperature.

The water secreted by the eccrine sweat glands utilizes a process called evaporative cooling to reduce the surface temperature of the skin, which in turn reduces the temperature of the blood flowing through the expanded arterioles near the skin surface, and that blood flows through the body and keeps the organs and muscles at a relatively constant temperature. Sweat glands are coil-shaped, with a bulbous sac at the bottom that filters blood plasma to produce sweat. When the cells surrounding the sac and coil are triggered, they contract, pushing that sweat to the surface of the skin.

We also have apocrine sweat glands (the only functional thermoregulatory glands in horses and other sweaty mammals), but they’re largely restricted to the armpits, areola, and perianal region. Their secretions are not as simple as eccrine sweat glands - they’re typically milky-white and contain hormones and additional components of blood plasma that bacteria *love* to chow down. Those bacteria produce stinky excretions of their own, and that’s what causes smelly armpits!

When you use deodorant, the substance you apply works by breaking down the components excreted by bacteria that cause the smell, and masking any residual stink that can’t be broken down. Antiperspirants function by plugging the openings of the sweat pores, so that sweat can’t escape. This is usually done with small particles of aluminum. Despite misconceptions, blocking the sweat glands does not cause breast cancer, though some people experience adverse effects due to allergies to aluminum or other ingredients.

Images:

Top: Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied. Henry Gray et al, 1910.
Bottom: Diseases of the skin; a text-book for students and practitioners. J.M.H. Macleod, 1920.

Japetella diaphana tentacles and buccal cavity Japatella diaphana is an octopus member of the Bolitaenidae family, and like the other members of its family, is very small - 12 cm long at most. They live, eat, and breed in the pelagic zone of the ocean, unlike deep-sea squid, which rarely spend their entire lives at such depths.  Mature females have a bioluminescent photophore encircling their beak. Die Cephalopoden. Ewald Rubasmen, 1910.

Japetella diaphana tentacles and buccal cavity

Japatella diaphana is an octopus member of the Bolitaenidae family, and like the other members of its family, is very small - 12 cm long at most. They live, eat, and breed in the pelagic zone of the ocean, unlike deep-sea squid, which rarely spend their entire lives at such depths. 

Mature females have a bioluminescent photophore encircling their beak.

Die Cephalopoden. Ewald Rubasmen, 1910.

archive.org

Vault of the Skull Opened, Showing the Falx Cerebri and Tentorum The falx cerebri is a strongly-arched section of dura mater which separates the two hemispheres of the brain. Combined with the tentorum ceribelli, it supports and separates the primary sections of the brain (cerebellum, right cerebrum, and left cerebrum). The large open section in the center of the meningeal conjugation is where the corpus callosum passes from one hemisphere of the brain to another. Applied Anatomy. Gwilym Davis, translated by Erwin Faber, 1910.

Vault of the Skull Opened, Showing the Falx Cerebri and Tentorum

The falx cerebri is a strongly-arched section of dura mater which separates the two hemispheres of the brain. Combined with the tentorum ceribelli, it supports and separates the primary sections of the brain (cerebellum, right cerebrum, and left cerebrum). The large open section in the center of the meningeal conjugation is where the corpus callosum passes from one hemisphere of the brain to another.

Applied Anatomy. Gwilym Davis, translated by Erwin Faber, 1910.

Platypodes being eaten by Teleosaurus and hunted by Pterodactylus Strictly speaking, platypodes did not exist in their current form back in the Late Jurassic (the only time Teleosaurus and Pterodactylus co-existed). When this illustration was published, Monotremata were thought to be “sub-mammalian”, and closely related to reptiles, and as such assumed to have split off from reptilian ancestors farther back than other mammalia. Thanks to genetic analysis, we now know that Monotremata are more closely-related to reptiles than other mammals, but not for the same reasons that were originally assumed. It’s unknown exactly when the order split from its last common ancestor to placental and marsupial mammals, but the oldest fossils we’ve found so far have only been 100 million years old or so. Those fossils were of Obdurodon, which looked a lot like a larger platypus with small shearing incisors, and molars in the back of its mouth. Aside from the fact that Teleosaurus was almost exclusively an open-ocean crocodilian, who knows? It might have snacked on an Obdurodon or two when it came to land to lay its eggs! The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westall, 1910.

Platypodes being eaten by Teleosaurus and hunted by Pterodactylus

Strictly speaking, platypodes did not exist in their current form back in the Late Jurassic (the only time Teleosaurus and Pterodactylus co-existed). When this illustration was published, Monotremata were thought to be “sub-mammalian”, and closely related to reptiles, and as such assumed to have split off from reptilian ancestors farther back than other mammalia.

Thanks to genetic analysis, we now know that Monotremata are more closely-related to reptiles than other mammals, but not for the same reasons that were originally assumed. It’s unknown exactly when the order split from its last common ancestor to placental and marsupial mammals, but the oldest fossils we’ve found so far have only been 100 million years old or so. Those fossils were of Obdurodon, which looked a lot like a larger platypus with small shearing incisors, and molars in the back of its mouth.

Aside from the fact that Teleosaurus was almost exclusively an open-ocean crocodilian, who knows? It might have snacked on an Obdurodon or two when it came to land to lay its eggs!

The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westall, 1910.

Pangolin - Manis spp. The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function. Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however. In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans. Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected. The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

Pangolin - Manis spp.

The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function.

Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however.

In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans.

Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected.

The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

The Elk (Cervus canadensis)  (Alces alces) and the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) Though the reindeer (or caribou) was long known to be a distinct species of holarctic  deer, the elk (or wapiti) was thought to be a subspecies of the European red deer until quite recently. To confuse things even more, the early European explorers thought that the elk was a subspecies of moose, leading to the word “elk” meaning moose in much of Europe. If that’s not enough, elk (Cervus canadensis) exist throughout Siberia and in Manchuria and Mongolia, but are known as “maral” in most regions, because of confusion with the East European red deer (Cervus elaphus maral), and the Mongolian subspecies of elk is known as the Alatai maral, even though it’s since been re-classified as Cervus canadensis sibericus. Ok, so I apparently did not triple-check this and I put in an “elk” that was really a moose, but I’m gonna go ahead and blame this one on nomenclature. Well…at least we know what a reindeer is. For their body size, the more southerly subspecies of bull reindeer have the largest antlers of any deer, even outclassing the largest bull moose (though not in overall size). The more northerly reindeer have smaller and more spindly antlers, with fewer prongs. Unlike many deer, the reindeer antlers always grow in two specific directions, and have a very delineated anterior and posterior branch. The Handy Natural History. Ernest Protheroe, 1910.

The Elk (Cervus canadensis)  (Alces alces) and the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

Though the reindeer (or caribou) was long known to be a distinct species of holarctic  deer, the elk (or wapiti) was thought to be a subspecies of the European red deer until quite recently. To confuse things even more, the early European explorers thought that the elk was a subspecies of moose, leading to the word “elk” meaning moose in much of Europe. If that’s not enough, elk (Cervus canadensis) exist throughout Siberia and in Manchuria and Mongolia, but are known as “maral” in most regions, because of confusion with the East European red deer (Cervus elaphus maral), and the Mongolian subspecies of elk is known as the Alatai maral, even though it’s since been re-classified as Cervus canadensis sibericus.

Ok, so I apparently did not triple-check this and I put in an “elk” that was really a moose, but I’m gonna go ahead and blame this one on nomenclature.

Well…at least we know what a reindeer is. For their body size, the more southerly subspecies of bull reindeer have the largest antlers of any deer, even outclassing the largest bull moose (though not in overall size). The more northerly reindeer have smaller and more spindly antlers, with fewer prongs. Unlike many deer, the reindeer antlers always grow in two specific directions, and have a very delineated anterior and posterior branch.

The Handy Natural History. Ernest Protheroe, 1910.

Jaws of the Hare You can see the teeth of the hare in the cutaway of the jaws. Note the “clipping”-oriented incisors, with the grinding-oriented molars. These are very similar to rodent teeth, having continually-growing incisors covered with enamel on the anterior surface, but with exposed dentine on the posterior surface. As dentine wears away much more easily than enamel, it serves as a “self-sharpening” system to keep the teeth in gnawing-condition. Despite these similarities, the teeth of rodents and lagomorphs are the result of convergent evolution, rather than being closely related. The difference that first led scientists to believe this (before it was proved by analysis of the inner-ear bones and other anatomical features, and, much later, genetics) is that lagomorphia are far more herbivorous than rodentia, and as such, do not have pre-molars, or any evidence of having had them. Their palate anatomy and digestive tract differs significantly because of this. The Handy Natural History. Ernest  Protheroe, 1910.

Jaws of the Hare

You can see the teeth of the hare in the cutaway of the jaws. Note the “clipping”-oriented incisors, with the grinding-oriented molars. These are very similar to rodent teeth, having continually-growing incisors covered with enamel on the anterior surface, but with exposed dentine on the posterior surface. As dentine wears away much more easily than enamel, it serves as a “self-sharpening” system to keep the teeth in gnawing-condition.

Despite these similarities, the teeth of rodents and lagomorphs are the result of convergent evolution, rather than being closely related. The difference that first led scientists to believe this (before it was proved by analysis of the inner-ear bones and other anatomical features, and, much later, genetics) is that lagomorphia are far more herbivorous than rodentia, and as such, do not have pre-molars, or any evidence of having had them. Their palate anatomy and digestive tract differs significantly because of this.

The Handy Natural History. Ernest  Protheroe, 1910.

Vertical Section of the Sole of the Foot The stratum corneum is 15-25 layers of dead, hard, keratinized squamous epithelial cells that’s much thicker on the feet and hands than other part of the body. You’ll notice that although there are sweat glands, there are no sebaceous glands or hair. Stohr’s Histology. Dr. Philipp Stohr, translated by Frederic T. Lewis, 1910.

Vertical Section of the Sole of the Foot

The stratum corneum is 15-25 layers of dead, hard, keratinized squamous epithelial cells that’s much thicker on the feet and hands than other part of the body. You’ll notice that although there are sweat glands, there are no sebaceous glands or hair.

Stohr’s Histology. Dr. Philipp Stohr, translated by Frederic T. Lewis, 1910.