Posts tagged 1900s

Because Mother’s Day Coffee trees developed caffeine as an insecticide, to kill off bugs that would eat its berries and fail to spread its seeds. Yes, it’s a deadly poison, but for tiny bugs. It takes at least as much coffee as crazy-face above is drinking to kill off us giant primates.Why Coffee is the greatest addiction (in every sense). Though maybe my mom should drink slightly less coffee. Maybe.LIFE Magazine, Feb 2, 1953.

Because Mother’s Day

Coffee trees developed caffeine as an insecticide, to kill off bugs that would eat its berries and fail to spread its seeds. Yes, it’s a deadly poison, but for tiny bugs. It takes at least as much coffee as crazy-face above is drinking to kill off us giant primates.

Why Coffee is the greatest addiction (in every sense).

Though maybe my mom should drink slightly less coffee. Maybe.
LIFE Magazine, Feb 2, 1953.

Plaster model of executed Chinese pirate

The neck stump of this executed Yangzee River pirate is surprisingly accurate for what was probably a sideshow prop. The cervical spine, blood vessels, muscles, trachea, and esophagus are all visible.

The muscular nature of the esophagus is highly visible here. You can also see the hardness of the trachea.

The donation of this model to the Science Museum London came with little accompanying information, but it is known that it was produced in England, between 1910 and 1922. The braid is real human hair, and the plaster and finish is of a high quality. Given its “blood-splattered” carrying case, it was most likely a prop in a traveling sideshow.

Images via Science Museum London.

sciencemuseum.org.uk

Top: Complete uterine prolapse.
Center and bottom: Female reproductive organs, diagrammatic and in situ.

In healthy women, the uterus is held in place by a “hammock” of ligaments and muscles, most notably the broad ligament, and the uterosacral ligaments. If these ligaments are torn or undergo trauma, they can weaken, and uterine prolapse can occur. The vast majority of uterine prolapse patients only have the uterus fall into the vagina, and further prolapse can often be staved off by Kegel and other exercises.

However, in severe cases (most often in very difficult vaginal births, following difficult pregnancies), both the uterus and vagina can prolapse, and completely evert from the pelvis. In these cases, it’s often only possible to revert and secure the vagina; the uterus is too heavy to suture into place with no natural support, and is generally removed in a hysterectomy.

Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical. Henry Gray, 1910.
Atlas Iconographique. Dr. S. Laskowski, 1898.

The Paenungulata

Despite their vast differences in their current appearance, the Sirenia, Hyracoidea, and Proboscidea are fairly closely related, in the grand scheme of things. The Paenungulata lived on the tidal shores of the Tethys Ocean. One line began to specialize in swimming and grazing on the shallow continental shelf, one began to specialize in browsing (eating from trees), and one began to specialize in grazing (eating grass and ground shrubs). Over time, these evolved into the three orders in the clade.

American Animals. Witmer Stone and William Everett Clam, 1905.
The Animal Kingdom. Hugh Craig, 1902.

Early ether administration methods

Top: Using a drip-cloth to put a woman in labor under anesthesia.
Second: Gauze-filled face-piece used in the same manner as the drip-cloth (by soaking the covering material).
Third: Automatic pressurized ether gas administration mask.
Fourth: Manual ether gas administration mask.

The early anesthesia gasses consisted of nitrous oxide (laughing gas), ether, and chloroform. Ether was the most effective in putting people under, and had the largest therapeutic index (the difference between the recommended dosage and a toxic overdose), but had significant side-effects (such as nausea and vomiting, even before consciousness was regained, resulting in aspiration), and suppressed the autonomic breathing reflex in high enough concentrations.

Today, the only one of the three original anesthetic gasses that is still in use is nitrous oxide. It’s generally used along with local anesthetic, since it is not of the best use in causing complete unconsciousness, but its action on the brain decreases discomfort whilst awake.

Images:
An American Text-Book of Obstetrics for Practitioners and Students. Edited by Richard C. Norris, 1895.
High-Grade Hospital Furniture and Appliances Catalog. Max Wocher & Son, 1905.

“Comparison of ancestral and existing horse” The lower figure is a model of a full-sized Eohippus, placed beneath the skull of a modern horse, to show that the skull of the modern horse is larger than the entire body of its ancestor. Despite being one of the most commonly cited “facts” in basic paleontology (as found in many elementary school science texts), this size comparison is actually incorrect. Geologist Henry Fairfield Osborn distributed (largely correct, aside from this point) educational pamphlets citing the size of Eohippus to be comparable to a “small fox terrier” to schoolhouses, to promote the science of paleontology, around the turn of the century. His pamphlets reached so far and wide that the “fact” still persists to this day in many textbooks. Eohippus was about twice the size of a fox terrier, which is about 2.5 times the size of a modern horse skull. Origin and History of the Horse. Address before the New York Farmers Metropolitan Club, 1905.

“Comparison of ancestral and existing horse”

The lower figure is a model of a full-sized Eohippus, placed beneath the skull of a modern horse, to show that the skull of the modern horse is larger than the entire body of its ancestor.

Despite being one of the most commonly cited “facts” in basic paleontology (as found in many elementary school science texts), this size comparison is actually incorrect. Geologist Henry Fairfield Osborn distributed (largely correct, aside from this point) educational pamphlets citing the size of Eohippus to be comparable to a “small fox terrier” to schoolhouses, to promote the science of paleontology, around the turn of the century.

His pamphlets reached so far and wide that the “fact” still persists to this day in many textbooks. Eohippus was about twice the size of a fox terrier, which is about 2.5 times the size of a modern horse skull.

Origin and History of the Horse. Address before the New York Farmers Metropolitan Club, 1905.

fuckyeahmedicalstuff: Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on April 10, 1887.He was the first Argentine and Latin American scientist awarded the Nobel Prize. The National Academy of Sciences of Sweden awarded him in Physiology and Medicine for his discovery of the role of the hypophysis gland in carbohydrate metabolism and in diabetes. He entered the School of Pharmacy of the University of Buenos Aires at the exceptionally early age of 14, graduating in 1904. He had already begun studying medicine and, in 1907, before completing his studies, he took up a post in the Department of Physiology. He began here his research on the hypophysis which resulted in his M.D.-thesis (1911), a thesis which earned him a University prize. In 1910 he was appointed Professor of Physiology in the University’s School of Veterinary Medicine. During this time he had been doing hospital practice and, in 1913, became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital. In addition to this he was also in charge of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology and Pathology in the National Department of Hygiene from 1915 to 1919. In 1919 he became Professor of Physiology in the Medical School at Buenos Aires University. He also organized the Institute of Physiology at the Medical School, making it a centre with an international reputation. He remained Professor and Director of the Institute until 1943. In this year the Government then in power deprived him of his post, as a result of his voicing his opinion that there should be effective democracy in the country. Although receiving many invitations from abroad, he continued his work in an institute which he organized with the support of funds contributed by the Sauberan Foundation and other bodies. This was the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, where he still remains as Director. In 1955 a new Government reinstated him in the University. He has worked in almost every field of physiology, having a special interest in the endocrine glands. He has made a lifelong study of the hypophysis and his most important discovery concerns the role of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism and the onset of diabetes. He has worked on many other topics in physiology and pharmacology, including the physiology of circulation and respiration, the processes of immunity, the nervous system, digestion, and snake and spider venoms. Apart from his research, he has been active in promoting the advancement of university and medical education, and of scientific research, in Argentina. Dr. Houssay is the author of over 500 papers and of several books. He has won many prizes ranging in time from that of the National Academy of Sciences, Buenos Aires, in 1923, to the Dale Medal of the Society of Endocrinology (London) in 1960. He was a key figure in the development of science in Argentina. The result of his tireless efforts is the creation of numerous research institutes and training of several generations of scientists. Medical graduate with honors from the University of Buenos Aires, he was, along with others, behind the creation of the National Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), which he chaired until his death on September 21, 1971. He also created the Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, and co-founded the Argentina Association for the Advancement of Science. He holds honorary degrees of twenty-five universities and is a member of the Argentine National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Letters, the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of Buenos Aires, and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor of 15 universities, foreign associate of 11 academies or learned societies, member (honorary or correspondent) of 38 Academies, 16 Societies of Biology, 11 of Endocrinology, 7 of Physiology and 5 of Cardiology. He has been decorated by the governments of several countries.

fuckyeahmedicalstuff:

Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on April 10, 1887.

He was the first Argentine and Latin American scientist awarded the Nobel Prize. The National Academy of Sciences of Sweden awarded him in Physiology and Medicine for his discovery of the role of the hypophysis gland in carbohydrate metabolism and in diabetes. 

He entered the School of Pharmacy of the University of Buenos Aires at the exceptionally early age of 14, graduating in 1904. He had already begun studying medicine and, in 1907, before completing his studies, he took up a post in the Department of Physiology. He began here his research on the hypophysis which resulted in his M.D.-thesis (1911), a thesis which earned him a University prize.

In 1910 he was appointed Professor of Physiology in the University’s School of Veterinary Medicine. During this time he had been doing hospital practice and, in 1913, became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital. In addition to this he was also in charge of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology and Pathology in the National Department of Hygiene from 1915 to 1919. In 1919 he became Professor of Physiology in the Medical School at Buenos Aires University. He also organized the Institute of Physiology at the Medical School, making it a centre with an international reputation. He remained Professor and Director of the Institute until 1943. In this year the Government then in power deprived him of his post, as a result of his voicing his opinion that there should be effective democracy in the country. Although receiving many invitations from abroad, he continued his work in an institute which he organized with the support of funds contributed by the Sauberan Foundation and other bodies. This was the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, where he still remains as Director. In 1955 a new Government reinstated him in the University.

He has worked in almost every field of physiology, having a special interest in the endocrine glands. He has made a lifelong study of the hypophysis and his most important discovery concerns the role of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism and the onset of diabetes. He has worked on many other topics in physiology and pharmacology, including the physiology of circulation and respiration, the processes of immunity, the nervous system, digestion, and snake and spider venoms.

Apart from his research, he has been active in promoting the advancement of university and medical education, and of scientific research, in Argentina.

Dr. Houssay is the author of over 500 papers and of several books. He has won many prizes ranging in time from that of the National Academy of Sciences, Buenos Aires, in 1923, to the Dale Medal of the Society of Endocrinology (London) in 1960.

He was a key figure in the development of science in Argentina. The result of his tireless efforts is the creation of numerous research institutes and training of several generations of scientists. Medical graduate with honors from the University of Buenos Aires, he was, along with others, behind the creation of the National Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), which he chaired until his death on September 21, 1971. He also created the Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, and co-founded the Argentina Association for the Advancement of Science.
He holds honorary degrees of twenty-five universities and is a member of the Argentine National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Letters, the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of Buenos Aires, and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor of 15 universities, foreign associate of 11 academies or learned societies, member (honorary or correspondent) of 38 Academies, 16 Societies of Biology, 11 of Endocrinology, 7 of Physiology and 5 of Cardiology. He has been decorated by the governments of several countries.

Terrible photos of a vintage anesthesia cart

The local miscellaneous surplus store has an old anesthesia cart for sale. It says “for human use only” on the side. They also sell blow-guns, hemostats, lab coats, gauze, and everything you’d need for a testing lab.

But no, my partner won’t let me become a mad scientist and dart people to do unethical testing. He says the neighbors would hear the screaming. :(

“That’s what the anesthesia cart is for!”
“…no, they would hear MY screaming.”

ETA:

  • Pressure containers include [left/orange] enflurane (trade name Ethrane), [center/red] halothane (trade name Fluothane), and [right/green] methoxyflurane (trade name Penthrane).
  • The cart was produced by Foregger, who, in the 1950s, represented a full 15% of all anesthesia apparatuses in hospitals, and was contracted to provide a number of surplus carts for individual states, for Civil Defense stockpiles. The Foregger company dissolved in 1987.
  • This cart has all of its original vaporization equipment attached, so I presume it was produced after halothane was first used as a clinical anesthesia agent (1956), and before it began to be phased out in favor of less problematic agents (early 1980s).
Horny growth of the penis Horny growths on the skin, also known as cornu cutaneum, are keratinous skin tumors, caused by overgrowth of keratin in the dermis. Since they’re avascular (they have no bloodflow), they can be easily removed with a scalpel or sharp razor, but the underlying condition will almost always reappear if the site is not treated with radiation, chemotherapy, or (occasionally) cryotherapy. Diseases and Surgery of the Genito-Urinary System. Francis Watson, 1908.

Horny growth of the penis

Horny growths on the skin, also known as cornu cutaneum, are keratinous skin tumors, caused by overgrowth of keratin in the dermis. Since they’re avascular (they have no bloodflow), they can be easily removed with a scalpel or sharp razor, but the underlying condition will almost always reappear if the site is not treated with radiation, chemotherapy, or (occasionally) cryotherapy.

Diseases and Surgery of the Genito-Urinary System. Francis Watson, 1908.

Northern or Single-Wattled Cassowary - Casuarius unappendiculatus

Cassowaries are one of the ratites - large, (generally) flightless birds. They inhabit the dense rainforests of Papua New Guinea, surrounding islands, and a small area of old-growth rainforest in Australia.

Unlike most birds, cassowary females are far more territorial than the males. Females will viciously attack any female who attempts to encroach into her territory, which can span several “satellite” male territories. During mating season, females will mate with one male, lay her eggs in his nest, and leave for the next male in her territory. In addition to the high energy output of laying the eggs (third-largest of all the birds), this polyandrous behavior allows the female to continue to control her territory while still passing on her genes.

The male both incubates the eggs and cares for the chicks when they hatch, and is much more aggressive than normal when the chicks are young, having even been seen keeping the females away from the nest area.

Cassowaries are one of the few birds that has killed humans outright - though attacks are uncommon, due to their rather secluded habitat, a boy named Philip McClean was killed in 1928, when a cassowary kicked him after he tripped and fell, severing his carotid artery. The bird had been chasing him because he and his brother had decided to try and kill it with clubs after finding it on their property, and probably wouldn’t have touched them if they hadn’t been beating it over the head.

Transactions of the Scientific Meetings of the Zoological Society of London. 1901.

biomedicalephemera: Pangolin - Manis spp. The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function. Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however. In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans. Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected. The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

biomedicalephemera:

Pangolin - Manis spp.

The eight species of the pangolin genus, Manis, have been the object of curiosity for centuries, but it wasn’t until recently that their true position in the tree of life was understood. As insect-eating creatures that are highly specialized to lick ants and termites (and other nesting insects) from deep inside their nests, they were long thought to be closely related to the giant anteater and other Xenartha. It turns out, however, that this is an example of convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop the same specialization to perform the same function.

Thanks to genetic studies, we now know that the pangolins are most closely related to the order Carnivora. They’re the only extant member of their own order (Pholidota), however.

In addition to their highly-specialized tongues, pangolins have both scales and fur, providing a tough armor on their back and a soft under-belly, allowing them the ability to roll into a tight ball. Their skunk-like scent glands also allow them to spray an acrid deterrent in the face of predators prior to rolling up. Thanks to these defenses, the only serious predators that pangolins face are humans.

Unfortunately, two species of the genus are now known to be endangered thanks to traditional medicine and smuggling. Protection efforts and enforcement in most areas of rural Asia are lacking due to many factors, and habitat destruction combined with continued hunting does not lead to a positive outlook for those species affected.

The Book of the Animal Kingdom: Mammals. W. Percival Westell, 1910.

biomedicalephemera

Position of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal The spinal cord proper does not extend the entire length of the vertebral canal. It ends between the first and second lumbar vertebra (two vertebra below the last set of ribs - just below the middle of the back), and a bundle of nerves that extend from it, called the cauda equina (“horse’s tail”), extends the rest of the way down the back, and into the sacrum. In adults, the spinal cord is usually between 17-18 inches long (43-45 cm).Atlas of Applied (Topographical) Anatomy for Students and Practitioners. Dr. Karl von Bardeleben and Dr. Heinrich Haeckel, 1906.

Position of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal

The spinal cord proper does not extend the entire length of the vertebral canal. It ends between the first and second lumbar vertebra (two vertebra below the last set of ribs - just below the middle of the back), and a bundle of nerves that extend from it, called the cauda equina (“horse’s tail”), extends the rest of the way down the back, and into the sacrum.

In adults, the spinal cord is usually between 17-18 inches long (43-45 cm).

Atlas of Applied (Topographical) Anatomy for Students and Practitioners. Dr. Karl von Bardeleben and Dr. Heinrich Haeckel, 1906.

Keratoconus Keratoconus (also known as “conical cornea”) is a degenerative disease of the eyes that manifests itself as a gradual degradation of the cornea into a more conical form than the typical eyeball. This condition can cause extreme nighttime vision distortion, sensitivity to light, itching, “ghost” images and some distortion of daytime vision. The etiology of this condition is not fully understood, though it’s known that proteases break down many of the keratin bonds in Bowman’s layer of the cornea, causing a relaxation of the tissues. In most patients with keratocornea, the degradation will “settle” at a degree that can be corrected by glasses. In 25% of patients, however, corneal transplant may be called for, in order to allow nighttime vision and increased sight during the day. Diseases of the Eye: Number One. Moorfields Manchester Institute of Ophthalmology, The Medical Illustration Department, pre-1950.

Keratoconus

Keratoconus (also known as “conical cornea”) is a degenerative disease of the eyes that manifests itself as a gradual degradation of the cornea into a more conical form than the typical eyeball.

This condition can cause extreme nighttime vision distortion, sensitivity to light, itching, “ghost” images and some distortion of daytime vision. The etiology of this condition is not fully understood, though it’s known that proteases break down many of the keratin bonds in Bowman’s layer of the cornea, causing a relaxation of the tissues.

In most patients with keratocornea, the degradation will “settle” at a degree that can be corrected by glasses. In 25% of patients, however, corneal transplant may be called for, in order to allow nighttime vision and increased sight during the day.

Diseases of the Eye: Number One. Moorfields Manchester Institute of Ophthalmology, The Medical Illustration Department, pre-1950.

“Happy Dreams”: A Sleeping Crocodile Nile Crocodile - Crocodylus niloticus Nile crocodiles are the largest crocodilian (and reptile) in Africa, and are second in size only to saltwater crocodiles (Steve Irwin’s salties!), which are native to Australia and its surrounding seas. However, saltwater crocodiles, while aggressive, don’t have the tendency to turn out “man hunters” like the Nile crocodiles do. This is largely because the Australian coastline is protected enough that native prey is still available at a level where predatory animals can survive. Nile crocodiles, however, do not have this advantage; the majority of the Nile crocodile range (aside from central Africa) has a high degree of overfishing and pollution of the freshwater rivers, to the point that some Nile crocs have turned to humans as a source of food. One of these “man-eaters” is named Gustave - believed to be between 40 to 60 years old, he weighs about one ton (2000 lbs or ~900 kg), and is known to have eaten at least 300 humans in his lifetime. If sources with uncertain credibility are taken into account, he may have eaten upwards of 800 humans, including over 200 able-bodied adult males. Gustave’s home range is a section of the Ruzizi river near the border of Burundi and Rwanda, where several other “man-eating” crocodiles are known to live. Due to the ongoing civil wars that have been taking place in that region, people have been driven to the rivers as a sole source of food (as crop farms were frequently raided and/or burned), and the local terrestrial fauna has also been greatly reduced. Gustave’s attacks are only known to have begun around 30 years ago, though he would have been large enough to easily kill a human around 4-5 years of age. This puts his consumption of people as a direct result of the changing dietary habits of civilians, during the times of civil unrest. The Uganda Protectorate. Sir Harry Johnston, 1902.

“Happy Dreams”: A Sleeping Crocodile

Nile Crocodile - Crocodylus niloticus

Nile crocodiles are the largest crocodilian (and reptile) in Africa, and are second in size only to saltwater crocodiles (Steve Irwin’s salties!), which are native to Australia and its surrounding seas.

However, saltwater crocodiles, while aggressive, don’t have the tendency to turn out “man hunters” like the Nile crocodiles do. This is largely because the Australian coastline is protected enough that native prey is still available at a level where predatory animals can survive. Nile crocodiles, however, do not have this advantage; the majority of the Nile crocodile range (aside from central Africa) has a high degree of overfishing and pollution of the freshwater rivers, to the point that some Nile crocs have turned to humans as a source of food.

One of these “man-eaters” is named Gustave - believed to be between 40 to 60 years old, he weighs about one ton (2000 lbs or ~900 kg), and is known to have eaten at least 300 humans in his lifetime. If sources with uncertain credibility are taken into account, he may have eaten upwards of 800 humans, including over 200 able-bodied adult males. Gustave’s home range is a section of the Ruzizi river near the border of Burundi and Rwanda, where several other “man-eating” crocodiles are known to live. Due to the ongoing civil wars that have been taking place in that region, people have been driven to the rivers as a sole source of food (as crop farms were frequently raided and/or burned), and the local terrestrial fauna has also been greatly reduced. Gustave’s attacks are only known to have begun around 30 years ago, though he would have been large enough to easily kill a human around 4-5 years of age. This puts his consumption of people as a direct result of the changing dietary habits of civilians, during the times of civil unrest.

The Uganda Protectorate. Sir Harry Johnston, 1902.

Top Left: Llama - Lama glamaTop Right: Vicugna - Lama guanicoeCenter: Alpaca - Vicugna pacos (previously categorized in genus Lama)Bottom: Bactrian camel - Camelus bactrianus The Camelids are Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) that first evolved in North America during the Eocene epoch (55.8 MYA - 33.9 MYA). Like horses, this group of animals evolved here for millions of years, but went extinct in North America after populations crossed the Bering land bridge. Unlike horses, however, the Camelids not only crossed over into Asia, but they also went south, into South America, during the Great American Exchange. The camelids which moved south evolved into what we now know as the tribe Lamini - the llama and guanaco (genus Lama), and alpaca and vicugna (genus Vicugna). The camelids which traveled into Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa, evolved into the tribe Camelini - the Bactrian and dromedary camels (genus Camelus). The Animal Kingdom, based on the writings of Eminent Naturalists: Vol 2. Hugh Craig, 1902.

Top Left: Llama - Lama glama
Top Right: Vicugna - Lama guanicoe
Center: Alpaca - Vicugna pacos (previously categorized in genus Lama)
Bottom: Bactrian camel - Camelus bactrianus

The Camelids are Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) that first evolved in North America during the Eocene epoch (55.8 MYA - 33.9 MYA). Like horses, this group of animals evolved here for millions of years, but went extinct in North America after populations crossed the Bering land bridge.

Unlike horses, however, the Camelids not only crossed over into Asia, but they also went south, into South America, during the Great American Exchange.

The camelids which moved south evolved into what we now know as the tribe Lamini - the llama and guanaco (genus Lama), and alpaca and vicugna (genus Vicugna). The camelids which traveled into Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa, evolved into the tribe Camelini - the Bactrian and dromedary camels (genus Camelus).

The Animal Kingdom, based on the writings of Eminent Naturalists: Vol 2. Hugh Craig, 1902.