Posts tagged 1800s
Disarticulated bones of the skull
The skull consists of 22 bones; 16 in the neurocranium (brain-case), and 8 in the endocranium (facial bones). At birth, these bones are not secured tightly together - this allows for passage of the infant through the birth canal (newborn heads are often cone-shaped for the first few days, if delivered vaginally), and allows for the rapid expansion of the brain during the first several years of life
By adulthood, however, the skull is one cohesive unit, and one of the strongest and least-deformable structures in nature. For human skulls, upwards of one ton of force (if evenly applied) is required to depress the bone just one centimeter. Of course, fractures and punctures can weaken the structural integrity of the skull significantly.
Anatomical Atlas, Illustrative of the Structure of the Human Body. Henry H. Smith, 1867.
Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on April 10, 1887.
He was the first Argentine and Latin American scientist awarded the Nobel Prize. The National Academy of Sciences of Sweden awarded him in Physiology and Medicine for his discovery of the role of the hypophysis gland in carbohydrate metabolism and in diabetes.
He entered the School of Pharmacy of the University of Buenos Aires at the exceptionally early age of 14, graduating in 1904. He had already begun studying medicine and, in 1907, before completing his studies, he took up a post in the Department of Physiology. He began here his research on the hypophysis which resulted in his M.D.-thesis (1911), a thesis which earned him a University prize.
In 1910 he was appointed Professor of Physiology in the University’s School of Veterinary Medicine. During this time he had been doing hospital practice and, in 1913, became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital. In addition to this he was also in charge of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology and Pathology in the National Department of Hygiene from 1915 to 1919. In 1919 he became Professor of Physiology in the Medical School at Buenos Aires University. He also organized the Institute of Physiology at the Medical School, making it a centre with an international reputation. He remained Professor and Director of the Institute until 1943. In this year the Government then in power deprived him of his post, as a result of his voicing his opinion that there should be effective democracy in the country. Although receiving many invitations from abroad, he continued his work in an institute which he organized with the support of funds contributed by the Sauberan Foundation and other bodies. This was the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, where he still remains as Director. In 1955 a new Government reinstated him in the University.
He has worked in almost every field of physiology, having a special interest in the endocrine glands. He has made a lifelong study of the hypophysis and his most important discovery concerns the role of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism and the onset of diabetes. He has worked on many other topics in physiology and pharmacology, including the physiology of circulation and respiration, the processes of immunity, the nervous system, digestion, and snake and spider venoms.
Apart from his research, he has been active in promoting the advancement of university and medical education, and of scientific research, in Argentina.
Dr. Houssay is the author of over 500 papers and of several books. He has won many prizes ranging in time from that of the National Academy of Sciences, Buenos Aires, in 1923, to the Dale Medal of the Society of Endocrinology (London) in 1960.He was a key figure in the development of science in Argentina. The result of his tireless efforts is the creation of numerous research institutes and training of several generations of scientists. Medical graduate with honors from the University of Buenos Aires, he was, along with others, behind the creation of the National Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), which he chaired until his death on September 21, 1971. He also created the Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, and co-founded the Argentina Association for the Advancement of Science.
He holds honorary degrees of twenty-five universities and is a member of the Argentine National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Letters, the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of Buenos Aires, and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is honorary professor of 15 universities, foreign associate of 11 academies or learned societies, member (honorary or correspondent) of 38 Academies, 16 Societies of Biology, 11 of Endocrinology, 7 of Physiology and 5 of Cardiology. He has been decorated by the governments of several countries.
Death’s-Head Hawkmoth - Acherontia atropos
There are three species of Death’s-Head Hawkmoth, all of which raid the hives of honeybees for their honey. They mimic the scent of their target bee, and this prompts the members of the hive to not attack the intruder. A. atropos targets the Western Honey-Bee, and is the only species of Death’s-Head Hawkmoth in Europe.
Aside from their ominous markings, these moths can “scream” when threatened. The “scream” is really a loud squeak, emitted by pushing air through the pharynx. Accompanied by flashing their contrasting colors, the unique screech is enough to scare off most predators.
The Naturalist’s Library Vol. VI: Entomology - Bees and Related Species. James Duncan, compiled by Sir William Jardine, 1840.
“Conchology”
Those hippocampi seem rather disturbed by the presentation of a mollusc platter.
The hippocamps or hippocampi (singular hippocamp) were sea-faring horses controlled by the god of the seas, Poseidon. In addition to lending their name to seahorses (Genus Hippocampus), the hippocamps also give their name to the structure in the brain that’s shaped vaguely akin to a seahorse - also called the hippocampus.
Encyclopaedia Londinensis; or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature: Volume V. John Wilkes, 1810.
Bottom: Short Beaked Echidna [right] (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and Western Long-Beaked Echidna [left] (Zaglossus bruijni)
Center Left: Starfish (Echinodermata spp.)
Center Right: Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)
Top: Echidna (mythological)
Originally, “Echidna” was a Greek mythological figure, a monstrous snake-like creature, and the mother of Cerberus, the Chimera, the Gorgon, and more. Her name roughly translates to “she-snake”, and the monotreme known as the echidna is cited in many sources as being named after her.
However, it is becoming more accepted these days that the echidna has the same etymological origins as the Greek term “ekhinus”, or “sea-urchin/porcupine [spine-skinned]”. Though similar-sounding, “ekhidna” and “ekhinos” have distinct etymological histories, and should be recognized as different terms.
It’s unknown if “ekhinus” originally referred to the sea-urchin or the hedgehog/porcupine, but the use of the term in reference to Echinaceae (coneflowers) is a direct reference to the spiny nature of the sea-urchin.
Male Narwhal or Unicorn (Monodon monoceros) and Greenland Shark (Somniosus microcephalus)
from An account of the Arctic regions with a history and description of the northern whale-fishery, by W. Scoresby. 1820. P. 588, Vol. II. Plate XV
Male Birds-of-Paradise, in repose (top) and on display (bottom)
Left to right: “Le Sifilet” [the Western or Arfak Parotia] - Parotia sefilata, Superb Bird-of-Paradise - Lophorina superba , “Le Nébuleux” [The Nebulous Bird-of-Paradise] - ??
Despite their incredibly different outward appearances, the Birds-of-Paradise are all very closely related. We know this because of their skeletal similarities, and, these days, their genetic similarities.
However, their close affiliation to one another genetically has also caused problems in pinning down the exact number of species in the family Paradisaeidae, as it turns out that within each of the fourteen genus, the species are able to (and occasionally naturally do) cross-breed with one another. This wild cross-breeding is believed to be the source of many of the specimens and illustrated birds that have never again, or very rarely, been seen in the wild.
An example of this cross-breeding is shown above, at right. The “Nebulous Bird-of-Paradise” is thought to either be a misrepresented Twelve-Wired Bird-of-Paradise (unlikely, given Jacques Barraband’s reputation as an ornithological illustrator), or a cross between two species living in nearby ranges of New Guinea. As the ranges of many different species and genus overlapped at the time of the specimens being gathered, it’s unknown which two would have created such a bird, or whether it would have been fertile (most wild cross-breeds of birds-of-paradise are). Genetic tests may give us the answers to these questions in the future.
Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de paradis et rolliers. Francois Levaillant, illustrated by Jacques Barraband, 1806.
Black Piranha - Serrasalmus rhombus
The black piranha (also known as the redeye or rhombeus piranha) has recently been discovered to have a bite force as strong as the estimated force of the extinct Megapiranha.
Though the negative stigma towards piranhas is largely undeserved, the mature black piranha is one of the most aggressive fish. This is especially true recently, with the over-fishing of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, depleting the food sources of the adult fish.
Most species of juvenile piranhas feed on the scales and fins of others fish. Yes, they will swim up to, and rip the fins off of big fish, especially as they near maturity, but are not yet large enough to reliably hunt down other fish.
Despite their huge size (up to 1 m long, four times longer than adult black piranhas) and extremely strong bite force, the Megapiranha of the Pleistocene era (8-10 mya) wasn’t believed to have a solely carnivorous diet. Their saw-shaped teeth bear similarities to the Serrasalmus genus, but also to the teeth of the Pacu, or “vegetarian piranha”.
Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro à Lima et de Lima au Para. Under direction of Le Comte Francis de Castelnau, 1856.
Dissection to show the superficial muscles of the back
This engraving by the anatomist John Bell displays the trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles of the back. These opposing muscles connect to the vertebral column and contribute to the strength of the upper extremity.
Engravings of the bones, muscles, and joints: illustrating the first volume of the Anatomy of the human body. John Bell, 1817.
Hasselet’s Dendrobium - Dendrobium hasseletii
This orchid lives high in the hills and mossy, montane forests of the Malaysian peninsula, as well as in Sumatra and Java. It has sparse, thin leaves, on a sturdy bamboo-like stalk. The flowers bloom from leafless parts of the stalk, in late summer and early fall. Despite its elegance, this orchid is one of the more difficult keepers, and as such is not widespread in the gardening and botanical circles.
Collection d’orchidées: aquarelles originales. Unknown German author/artist, late 1800s.
Today is the birthday of Irish Chemist Thomas Andrews, born to a linen merchant in Belfast Ireland in 1815. Andrews was the first scientist to understand and demonstrate that ozone is a form (O3) of oxygen. Ozone is known for its peculiar smell-humans can discern the presence of Ozone in concentrations of as little as ten parts per billion in the air. This unusual property gave ozone its name, which comes from the Ancient Greek word ὄζειν (ozein) meaning to smell. The word was coined by Christian Friedrich Schöenbein with his discovery in 1840. Schöenbein recognized that the peculiar smell after lightning strikes was due to ozone.
Image of the ozone hole courtesy NASA, in the public domain. See a very short animation of the changing size of the hole here.
The Bestiarium of Aloys Zötl (1831-1887)
Field illustration of Wallace’s flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus)
Alfred Russel Wallace discovered this “flying” (gliding) frog during his first expedition to South-East Asia. This is the first known illustration of the species.
How To Die at Work: 1875 edition.
Thanks again to Antiquus Morbis for the inspiration; many of these terms can also be found over there, in addition to hundreds of other causes of death.
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Though the Occupational Safety and Health Act as we [in the US] know it has only existed since 1970, there have been differing levels of federal oversight in the workplace since the Bureau of Labor was created as part of the Department of the Interior in 1888, and the Department of Labor was established in 1913. Though their oversight may not have been as stringent as what we have now, and laws may not have protected people as they do today, it was certainly better than nothing.
So what was working before ANY oversight like? Well, here are a few ways you could have died from your occupation, assuming you didn’t get killed by falling, getting crushed, getting impaled, or straight up getting ripped apart by the machinery (read: I’m not covering industrial disasters today; they’re coming later):
Aluminosis/Kaolinosis - Fibriod phthisis caused by the inhalation of clay dust.
Brass Founder’s Ague - A debilitating fever (often cyclical, like ague) caused by inhalation of the fumes of burned-down zinc, copper, or magnesium, in brass foundries.
Byssinosis - A lung disease caused by inhalation of cotton fiber dust or other vegetable fiber dust (flax, hemp, sissal). Leads to coughing, wheezing, progressive lung scarring and narrowing of the airways, and eventually death. Death isn’t so much due to the scarring, but more because of the highly reduced ability to fight pulmonary infections. Was particularly common in young girls and women, especially those in thread factories.
Caisson Disease - Spinal affection caused by either moving from a condensed atmosphere underground or a pressurized diving apparatus into the ground-level atmosphere again. Often occurs in conjunction with “The Bends”. Known as Diver’s Paralysis.
Cancer Scroti - …this is an awful one. A cancer noted by Percival Potts, affecting primarily chimney sweeps. Scrotal cancer, often appearing around puberty. Unfortunately was often treated as if it was a venereal disease, which wouldn’t have helped anything. Often led to the cancer spreading to the lymph nodes, leading to death before 18. Also known as Soot wart.
Danbury Shakes/Hatter’s Shakes - Symptoms of inhalation mercury poisoning exhibited by the hat-makers in Danbury, CT (the hat capital of the world in the 1800s). Often involved shaking, delirium, slurring speech, twitching, and a lurching gait. Sometimes these guys were mistaken for drunks.
Lacemaker’s Disease - Lead poisoning sometimes found in lace-makers.
Mad Hatter’s Syndrome - Differs from Danbury Shakes in that it more often leads to death, and is more often caused by unintentional ingestion of mercury (rather than inhalation). Involves severe ataxia, gastrointestinal symptoms, and emotional instability, in addition to the symptoms of Hatter’s Shakes.
Matches Disease - Oh god. Phossy jaw. Will do a full post on this and radium jaw soon. Caused by working with and inhaling the dust of white/yellow phosphorous, which was the primary ingredient in matches for a long time. Young girls and unmarried women were the primary makers of matches, and ended up the most affected by this disease. In the end, your jaw basically rots off and you go crazy and then you die. Also known as Phosphorus necrosis.
Potter’s Rot - Known as silicosis today. Caused by inhalation of silica particles often found in clay. Silica embeds itself deep in the alveolar sacs (meaning that it cant be coughed out), and the body, trying to get rid of the irritant, becomes inflamed and deposits collagen around the silica. This causes fibrotic nodules in the lungs, respiratory insufficiency, severe cough, fever, right ventricle heart disease, weight loss, and cyanosis. Silicosis leads to a significantly increased risk of tuberculosis and cancer, as well as mycobacterial infections. Also known as slate-worker’s lung/sandblaster’s asthma.
Ptilosis - Another form of fibroid phthisis, caused by inhalation of feather dust and down dust. In the ostrich feather industry of South Africa (which aside from pen quills, had a huge boom around 1880 thanks to the fashions of the time - feathers were prominent for over a decade, and came back in style frequently), this was particularly prevalent.
Rag Sorter’s/Rag-Picker’s Disease - Anthrax. Should do a post on the history of anthrax soon. Really interesting topic. Rag sorters were the women who sorted rags in the paper factories. Rag sorter’s disease often manifested itself as cutaneous anthrax, but pulmonary (inhalation) anthrax was not uncommon.
Sailor’s Fever - Yellow Fever. Almost always acquired in the tropics.
Silo-Filler’s Lung - Acute bronchiolitis fibrosa obliterans, caused by inhaling high levels of nitrogen oxides. Recently-filled silos have very high levels of nitrogen dioxide (which is one reason why you never want to be in a poorly-ventilated silo). Nitrous fume intoxication causes cough and shortness of breath, followed by high fever, chills, and a more serious shortness of breath. Death from pulmonary edema following the second phase was not uncommon.
Woolsorter’s “Pneumonia” - Inhalation anthrax. Anthrax spores are soil-borne, and when wool is sorted, it still carries the environmental dirt and grime that the sheep (who largely live outdoors) pick up. As the dirt is knocked free, soil-borne spores are also released. The sheep didn’t necessarily have to be infected itself to pick up anthrax spores as it lay on the ground. Though mortality rates from pulmonary anthrax hover around 45% these days thanks to early diagnosis, improved treatment, and (most of all) Pasteur’s anthrax vaccine for livestock, historic mortality rates were ~92%. Pretty awful thing to catch in the workplace.
Wax anatomical models of man and woman; half-skeleton, half-living, in fashionable Regency garments.
It’s unknown if these models were intended as a darkly comic “memento mori” sort of novelty, or a teaching aid, or both.
The skeletons are accurate enough to have been used to teach students how the articulations line up in the living body, so even as a novelty, they may have had an educational use.
Models located at Science Museum London, originally created ca. 1810-1830.
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A blog for all biological and medical ephemera, from the age of Abraham through the era of medical quackery and cure-all nostrums. Featuring illustrations, history, and totally useless trivia from the diverse realms of nature and medicine.
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